Radioactive material accounts for a very small proportion of all dangerous material shipped each year. About 20 million consignments of radioactive material are transported each year on public roads, railways, and ships. 

Many of the world's nuclear reactors are used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. There are about 220 such reactors operating, in 53 countries.

The current fleet of nuclear reactors runs primarily on uranium fuel enriched up to 5% uranium-235 (U-235). High-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU) is defined as uranium enriched to greater than 5% and less than 20% U-235. Applications for HALEU are today limited to research reactors and medical isotope production. However, HALEU will be needed for many advanced power reactor fuels, and more than half of the small modular reactor (SMR) designs in development.

Hungary has four nuclear reactors generating about half of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1982. Government support for nuclear energy is strong.

A list of terms commonly used in discussion of the nuclear energy industry.

Thorium is more abundant in nature than uranium. It is fertile rather than fissile, and can be used in conjunction with fissile material as nuclear fuel. The use of thorium as a new primary energy source has been a tantalizing prospect for many years.

About 15% of Canada's electricity comes from nuclear power. For many years Canada has been a leader in nuclear research and technology, as well as a high proportion of the world supply of radioisotopes used in medical diagnosis and cancer therapy.

The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of industrial processes which involve the production of electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. Uranium is a relatively common element that is found throughout the world.

Over one-third of the energy produced in most nuclear power plants comes from plutonium. It is created there as a by-product. Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for trace quantities it is not now found in the Earth's crust.

Most low-level radioactive waste is typically sent to land-based disposal immediately following its packaging. Many long-term waste management options have been investigated worldwide which seek to provide publicly acceptable, safe, and environmentally sound solutions to the management of intermediate-level waste and high-level radioactive waste.

France derives about 70% of its electricity from nuclear energy. This is due to a long-standing policy based on energy security. France is the world's largest net exporter of electricity due to its very low cost of nuclear generation.

South Africa has two nuclear reactors generating 5% of its electricity. South Africa's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1984. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy has been strong, but financial constraints are severe.

Uranium occurs in a number of different igneous, hydrothermal and sedimentary geological environments. The major primary ore mineral is uraninite or pitchblende, though a range of other uranium minerals exist. 

Argentina has three operable nuclear reactors generating about 5% of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974.

Slovakia has five nuclear reactors generating half of its electricity and one more under construction. Slovakia's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1972.

Brazil has two nuclear reactors generating about 3% of its electricity. Construction began on a third reactor in 2010, was suspended in 2015, recommenced in November 2022, but suspended again in April 2023. The country's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1982.

There is strong interest in small and simpler units for generating electricity from nuclear power, and for process heat. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) represent a broad suite of designs that seek to apply the principles of modularity, factory fabrication, and serial production to nuclear energy.

Like coal and gas-fired plants, nuclear power plants use cooling to condense the steam used to drive the turbines that generate the electricity. Once-through, recirculating or dry cooling may be used. Most nuclear plants also use water to transfer heat from the reactor core.

Improved designs of nuclear power reactors are currently being developed in several countries. Newer advanced reactors now being built have simpler designs which reduce capital cost. They are more fuel efficient and are inherently safer.

There are a number of pervasive myths regarding both radiation and radioactive wastes. Some lead to regulation and actions which are counterproductive to human health and safety.

The basic fuel for a nuclear power reactor is uranium. Uranium occurs naturally in the Earth's crust and is mildly radioactive. Depleted uranium is a by-product from uranium enrichment.

India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme and has ambitious plans to expand nuclear capacity. The country has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.

The function of many common consumer products is dependent on the use of small amounts of radioactive material.

Nuclear waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other toxic industrial wastes. The amount of radioactive waste is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel electricity generation. Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically proven.

An overview of key global results, with high resolution images.

Most of the current fleet of reactors in the UK is due to retire by 2030. Construction has commenced on the first of a new generation of plants.

Nuclear Power in the USA Appendix 3   The US Department of Energy (DOE) has made provision for companies to apply for combined construction and operating licences (COLs) for new nuclear power plants, with costs being shared by DOE (see page on US Nuclear Policy). COL applications for 26 new nuclear reactors at 17 sites had been submitted to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) by mid-2009. The NRC expects applications for a further seven reactors by 2010.

Over 160 ships are powered by more than 200 small nuclear reactors. Most are submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers. In future, constraints on fossil fuel use in transport may bring marine nuclear propulsion into more widespread use.

About 9% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy. Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactor. New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation reactors come to the end of their operating lives.

Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.

China has become self-sufficient in most aspects of the fuel cycle. The country aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically, obtain one-third through foreign equity in mines and joint ventures overseas, and to purchase one-third on the open market.

Mineral Sands Appendix to NORM Information Paper ( March 2008 ) Australia and Africa are major producers of mineral sands containing titanium minerals and zircon.   A by-product of this is monazite containing thorium, which is radioactive. Monazite is a minor constituent of many mineral sands deposits

Germany until March 2011 obtained one-quarter of its electricity from nuclear energy, using 17 reactors. Following the Fukushima accident in Japan in March 2011, eight reactors shut down immediately with the remaining reactors phased out by April 2023.

Following many years of construction, Iran's first nuclear power reactor started up in 2011. Two further large Russian-designed units are planned, the first of which commenced construction in November 2019. The country also has a major programme developing uranium enrichment, and this was concealed for many years.

Turkey has had plans for establishing nuclear power generation since 1970. The country's first nuclear power plant, at Akkuyu, commenced construction in April 2018.

Following the 1986 Chernobyl accident, safety concerns over early Soviet reactor designs intensified. As a condition of accession to the European Union, eight Soviet-designed reactors were closed. Sixteen nuclear power reactors of early Soviet design are still operating: one in Armenia and the rest in Russia

Armenia has relied heavily on nuclear power since 1976. It has one reactor in operation and the government plans to build another.

British scientists were preeminent in the development of nuclear energy through to the early 1940s and a domestic nuclear industry grew to provide up to one third of electricity before starting to gradually retire. Now the country is working to build a new wave of power plants.

Molten salt reactor use molten fluoride salts as primary coolant, at low pressure. Much of the interest today in reviving the MSR concept relates to using thorium (to breed fissile uranium-233).

Bulgaria has two nuclear reactors generating about one-third of its electricity. Bulgaria's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong.

Italy has had four operating nuclear power reactors but shut the last two down following the Chernobyl accident. About 5% of the electricity consumed in Italy is from nuclear power – all imported.

Most uranium mining in the USA and Kazakhstan is now by in situ leach methods.  In the USA, ISL is seen as the most cost effective and environmentally acceptable method of mining, and Australian experience supports this.

The USA is reviving its uranium mining, though almost all the uranium used in US commercial reactors is imported. A new centrifuge enrichment plant is now operating to replace very old and inefficient capacity. Implementation of national policy on high-level waste disposal remains blocked politically, but there are now two major proposals for long-term storage of it.

Australia's Uranium Deposits and Prospective Mines. Summary of Resources Available in Major Deposits and Prospective Mines

An international task force is developing six nuclear reactor technologies for deployment between 2020 and 2030. Four are fast neutron reactors. All six systems represent advances in sustainability, economics, safety, reliability and proliferation-resistance.

Lithuania closed its last nuclear reactor, which had been generating 70% of its electricity, at the end of 2009. Electricity was a major export until the closure of Lithuania's nuclear plant.

The science of atomic radiation, atomic change and nuclear fission was developed from 1895 to 1945. From 1945 attention was given to harnessing this energy in a controlled fashion for naval propulsion and for making electricity.

Used nuclear fuel has long been reprocessed to extract fissile materials for recycling and to reduce the volume of high-level wastes. New reprocessing technologies are being developed to be deployed in conjunction with fast neutron reactors which will burn all long-lived actinides.
 

Fuel fabrication is the final stage in nuclear fuel preparation prior to use in a reactor. Nuclear fuel assemblies are specifically designed for particular types of reactors and are made to exacting standards.

Sweden's nuclear power reactors provide about 30% of its electricity. In November 2023 the government announced plans to construct two large-scale reactors by 2035 and the equivalent of 10 new reactors, including small modular reactors, by 2045.

Finland has five operating nuclear reactors. Provisions for radioactive waste disposal are well-advanced.

Life-cycle analysis is useful for comparing net energy yields from different methods of electricity generation. Nuclear power shows up very well as a net provider of energy. External costs, evaluated as part of life-cycle assessment, strongly favour nuclear over coal-fired generation.

Uranium is a relatively common metal, found in rocks and seawater. Economic concentrations of it are not uncommon.

Japanese Waste and MOX Shipments from Europe Appendix: From BNFL Media Brief 4 December 1996, "Shipments of Nuclear Materials Between Europe and Japan"

The energy projections produced by the International Energy Agency (IEA) are frequently consulted by policymakers, the media, and analysts. This information page discusses the nuclear power sector projections of the main IEA scenarios alongside those produced by other organizations.

A large amount of uranium is in rare earths deposits, and may be extracted as a by-product. Higher uranium prices and geopolitical developments would enhance the economic potential for recovering these.

Electricity demand is growing. The key question is how electricity should be produced now and in the years to come. Nuclear is currently the world's second largest source of low-carbon power, is quickly scalable, and provides numerous benefits to people and the planet.

The 1970 energy crises led to a major expansion of nuclear capacity as countries sought to diversify their sources of energy supply and reduce dependence on the continual import of large volumes of fossil fuels. For many countries, the appraisal of recent events and, in particular, surging fossil fuel prices, has led to similar decisions that that may result in a greater role for nuclear energy.

The USA's reactors provide about 18% of its electricity. These have a high level of performance. 

The second session of the Financing Nuclear Briefing Series (FNBS) convened Friday 24 October at KPMG’s London offices, bringing together leading voices from the financial and nuclear sectors to explore the theme of financial readiness for nuclear newbuild.

Neutrons in motion are the starting point for everything that happens in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron passes near to a heavy nucleus, for example uranium-235, the neutron may be captured by the nucleus and this may or may not be followed by fission.

Japan needs to import some 90% of its energy requirements. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973. Following the 2011 Fukushima accident this policy was reviewed and reaffirmed.

Dr Sama Bilbao y Leon, Director General of World Nuclear Association, recently spoke at a World Economic Forum Senior Executive Meeting on the 7th November on the topic of accelerated nuclear funding.

Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer. Tens of millions of nuclear medicine procedures are performed each year, and demand for radioisotopes is increasing rapidly.

Canada was the world's largest uranium producer for many years, accounting for about 22% of world output, but in 2009 was overtaken by Kazakhstan. Canada will have a significant role in meeting future world demand for uranium.

Ukraine is heavily dependent on nuclear energy – it has 15 reactors generating about half of its electricity.

Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for an expanded role of nuclear energy, including development of new reactor technology. Exports of nuclear goods and services are a major Russian policy and economic objective.

Prior to enrichment, uranium oxide must be converted to a fluoride so that it can be processed as a gas, at low temperature. Conversion plants are operating commercially in Canada, China, France, Russia and the USA.

Decommissioning costs for nuclear power plants, including disposal of associated wastes, contribute only a small fraction of the total cost of electricity generation. Proven techniques and equipment are available to dismantle nuclear facilities.

Uranium is a very heavy metal which can be used as an abundant source of concentrated energy. Uranium occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts per million and is as common in the Earth's crust as tin, tungsten and molybdenum.

Reactor archive October 2007

Powerful accelerators may be linked to conventional nuclear reactor technology in an accelerator-driven system (ADS) to transmute long-lived radioisotopes in used nuclear fuel into shorter-lived fission products.

Reactor archive March 2007

Reactor archive September 2007

Reactor archive May 2007

China has become largely self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. The strong impetus for nuclear power in China is increasingly due to air pollution from coal-fired plants.

Spain generates about a fifth of its electricity from nuclear power. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1968. There are plans for renewed uranium mining. Government commitment to nuclear energy has been uncertain.

Nuclear reactors come in many different shapes and sizes. Most are large enough to power major cities, and small reactors are being developed to complement them. Many use water to cool their cores, whilst others use gas or metals.

A guide to the features of our reactor database, plus global data for 2025

Reactor archive December 2007

Reactor archive January 2008

  World Nuclear Power Reactors 2006-08 and Uranium Requirements 20 March 2008   NUCLEAR ELECTRICITY GENERATION 2006 REACTORS OPERABLE March 2008 REACTORS UNDER CONSTRUCTION March 2008 REACTORS PLANNED March 2008 REACTORS PROPOSED March 2008 URANIUM REQUIRED 2008

Reactor archive July 2008

Reactor archive September 2008

Reactor archive August 2008

Reactor archive January 2007

Reactor archive August 2007

Treatment and conditioning processes are used to convert radioactive waste materials into a form that is suitable for its subsequent management.