Hydrogen is widely seen as a future transport fuel. Nuclear energy can be used to make hydrogen electrolytically, and in the future high-temperature reactors are likely to be used to make it thermochemically.
Molten salt reactor use molten fluoride salts as primary coolant, at low pressure. Much of the interest today in reviving the MSR concept relates to using thorium (to breed fissile uranium-233).
Fossil fuels receive indirect subsidies in their waste disposal as well as some direct subsidies. Nuclear energy fully accounts for its waste disposal and decommissioning costs in financial evaluations.
Fuel fabrication is the final stage in nuclear fuel preparation prior to use in a reactor. Nuclear fuel assemblies are specifically designed for particular types of reactors and are made to exacting standards.
Over 160 ships are powered by more than 200 small nuclear reactors. Most are submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers. In future, constraints on fossil fuel use in transport may bring marine nuclear propulsion into more widespread use.
Life-cycle analysis is useful for comparing net energy yields from different methods of electricity generation. Nuclear power shows up very well as a net provider of energy. External costs, evaluated as part of life-cycle assessment, strongly favour nuclear over coal-fired generation.
Like nuclear power, renewable energy provides electricity without significant carbon dioxide emissions. However, solar and wind require back-up generating capacity due to their intermittent nature.
Electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles which are able to be charged from mains power have potential to greatly increase the demand for base-load power from grid systems. Development of these depends critically on battery technology.
Indonesia's population of about 260 million is served by power generation capacity of only about 95 GWe. Indonesia has a greater depth of experience and infrastructure in nuclear technology than any other country in southeast Asia.
An international task force is developing six nuclear reactor technologies for deployment between 2020 and 2030. Four are fast neutron reactors. All six systems represent advances in sustainability, economics, safety, reliability and proliferation-resistance.
Nuclear power is cost competitive with other forms of electricity generation, except where there is direct access to low-cost fossil fuels. In assessing the economics of nuclear power, decommissioning and waste disposal costs are fully taken into account.
Japan needs to import some 90% of its energy requirements. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973. Following the 2011 Fukushima accident this policy was reviewed and reaffirmed.
Energy storage on a large scale has become a major focus of attention and research as intermittent renewable energy has become more prevalent.
Energy storage on a large scale has become a major focus of attention and research as intermittent renewable energy has become more prevalent.
The world will need significantly increased energy supply in the next 30 years, especially cleanly-generated electricity. Electricity demand is increasing much more rapidly than overall energy use.
The energy projections produced by the International Energy Agency (IEA) are frequently consulted by policymakers, the media, and analysts. This information page discusses the nuclear power sector projections of the main IEA scenarios alongside those produced by other organizations.
Sweden's nuclear power reactors provide about 30% of its electricity. In November 2023 the government announced plans to construct two large-scale reactors by 2035 and the equivalent of 10 new reactors, including small modular reactors, by 2045.
Nuclear waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other toxic industrial wastes. The amount of radioactive waste is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel electricity generation. Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically proven.
Energy conversion: the heat values of uranium and various fossil fuels.
South Korea is among the world's most prominent nuclear energy countries, and exports its technology widely. Today 26 reactors provide about one-third of South Korea's electricity from 26 GWe of plant.
Used nuclear fuel has long been reprocessed to extract fissile materials for recycling and to reduce the volume of high-level wastes. New reprocessing technologies are being developed to be deployed in conjunction with fast neutron reactors which will burn all long-lived actinides.
Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.
The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of industrial processes which involve the production of electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. Uranium is a relatively common element that is found throughout the world.
The basic fuel for a nuclear power reactor is uranium. Uranium occurs naturally in the Earth's crust and is mildly radioactive. Depleted uranium is a by-product from uranium enrichment.
The USA is reviving its uranium mining, though almost all the uranium used in US commercial reactors is imported. A new centrifuge enrichment plant is now operating to replace very old and inefficient capacity. Implementation of national policy on high-level waste disposal remains blocked politically, but there are now two major proposals for long-term storage of it.
About 30 countries are actively considering, planning or starting nuclear power programmes.
Belgium has three operable nuclear reactors. Belgium's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974. A 2003 federal law requiring the phase-out of nuclear energy was repealed in May 2025.
Thorium is more abundant in nature than uranium. It is fertile rather than fissile, and can be used in conjunction with fissile material as nuclear fuel. The use of thorium as a new primary energy source has been a tantalizing prospect for many years.
Saudi Arabia has plans to establish a civil nuclear power industry.
Uranium is a relatively common metal, found in rocks and seawater. Economic concentrations of it are not uncommon.
Burning coal without adding to global carbon dioxide levels is a major technological challenge. The greatest challenge is bringing the cost of capture and storage technology down sufficiently for 'clean coal' to compete with nuclear power.
Burning coal without adding to global carbon dioxide levels is a major technological challenge. The greatest challenge is bringing the cost of capture and storage technology down sufficiently for 'clean coal' to compete with nuclear power.
To limit the impacts of climate change, the world must rapidly reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. Nuclear energy is low-carbon and can supply the world with clean, reliable, and affordable electricity.
France derives about 70% of its electricity from nuclear energy. This is due to a long-standing policy based on energy security. France is the world's largest net exporter of electricity due to its very low cost of nuclear generation.
To limit the impacts of climate change, the world must rapidly reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. Nuclear energy is low-carbon and can supply the world with clean, reliable, and affordable electricity.
The 1970 energy crises led to a major expansion of nuclear capacity as countries sought to diversify their sources of energy supply and reduce dependence on the continual import of large volumes of fossil fuels. For many countries, the appraisal of recent events and, in particular, surging fossil fuel prices, has led to similar decisions that that may result in a greater role for nuclear energy.
The ocean has absorbed almost half of the CO2 emitted by burning fossil fuels
Climate change is a worldwide problem and policy responses have accordingly had an international basis; the principal focus has been on reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
This information paper describes in detail the causes of the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi in March 2011 and the actions taken since.
India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme and has ambitious plans to expand nuclear capacity. The country has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.
Germany until March 2011 obtained one-quarter of its electricity from nuclear energy, using 17 reactors. Following the Fukushima accident in Japan in March 2011, eight reactors shut down immediately with the remaining reactors phased out by April 2023.
Neutrons in motion are the starting point for everything that happens in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron passes near to a heavy nucleus, for example uranium-235, the neutron may be captured by the nucleus and this may or may not be followed by fission.
While India and China are alike in having large aspirations to produce clean energy in the 21st century using nuclear power, the two countries occupy quite different positions in relation to the Non-Proliferation Treaty.
There is every reason to expect that the world supply of uranium, as of other metals, is sustainable, with adequate known resources being continuously replenished at least as fast as they are being used and at costs affordable to consumers.
Electricity is essential for modern life, yet almost one billion people live without access to it. Challenges such as climate change, pollution and environmental destruction require that we change the way we generate electricity.
This project will supply high-temperature steam an industrial site as an alternative to steam generation from fossil fuels.
The Netherlands has one nuclear reactor generating a small amount of its electricity. A previous decision to phase out nuclear power has been reversed. Public and political support is increasing for expanding nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy is an excellent source of process heat for various industrial applications including desalination, synthetic and unconventional oil production, oil refining, biomass-based ethanol production, and in the future: hydrogen production.
The UAE has commenced a nuclear power programme. It accepted a bid from a South Korean consortium to build four commercial nuclear power reactors at Barakah, the first of which was connected to the grid in August 2020.
Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel provides about 2% of the new nuclear fuel used today. MOX fuel is manufactured from plutonium recovered from used reactor fuel. MOX fuel also provides a means of burning weapons-grade plutonium (from military sources) to produce electricity.
Electricity demand is growing. The key question is how electricity should be produced now and in the years to come. Nuclear is currently the world's second largest source of low-carbon power, is quickly scalable, and provides numerous benefits to people and the planet.
California has a large and growing population and a flourishing economy, with a major high-technology sector. Electricity demand has been rising steadily for many years. In 2000-01 there was an acute electricity supply crisis, triggered by several factors. In 2020 there was another supply crisis.
Whereas carbon dioxide emissions associated with nuclear power generation are negligible, emissions from fossil fuel power plants are considerable – resulting in environmental and health consequences.
China has become largely self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. The strong impetus for nuclear power in China is increasingly due to air pollution from coal-fired plants.
Reprocessing of Japanese used fuel has been undertaken in UK and France under contract with Japanese utilities. Recovered fissile materials are returned to Japan as reactor fuel, notably as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel.
Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973.
A major increase in uranium mine production is planned. There is increasing international involvement in parts of Russia's fuel cycle. Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.
Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for future generations, but it also presents so far unresolved engineering challenges.
Most countries participate in international initiatives designed to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The international safeguards system has since 1970 successfully prevented the diversion of fissile materials into weapons.
There is strong interest in small and simpler units for generating electricity from nuclear power, and for process heat. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) represent a broad suite of designs that seek to apply the principles of modularity, factory fabrication, and serial production to nuclear energy.
Germany's Energiewende (energy transition) is a national program to change to a renewable-dominated energy system and phase out nuclear power. The government has estimated that the total cost of this could reach €1 trillion.
A preview of our upcoming World Nuclear Outlook Report 2025, which reviews government plans and goals for nuclear capacity over the next 25 years.
Atmospheric concentrations of some of the gases that produce the greenhouse effect are increasing due to human activity and the vast majority of the world's climate scientists believe this causes global warming and resulting climate change.
Atmospheric concentrations of some of the gases that produce the greenhouse effect are increasing due to human activity and the vast majority of the world's climate scientists believe this causes global warming and resulting climate change.
Today at the International Conference on Climate Change and the Role of Nuclear Power Agneta Rising, Director General of World Nuclear Association said “The nuclear industry is committed to delivering what it needs to do to save our planet from climate change.”
Substantial amounts have been invested in energy R&D over the last 30 years, much directed at developing nuclear energy. Nowhere in the world is nuclear power subsidised per unit of production. In some countries however it is taxed because production costs are so low.
Jordan imports most of its energy and seeks greater energy security as well as lower electricity prices. It had been planning to build a 2000 MWe nuclear power plant for operation by 2025, to provide nearly half its electricity, but is now considering the use of small modular reactors instead. Jordan has significant uranium resources, some in phosphorite deposits.
Climate change is a worldwide problem and policy responses have accordingly had an international basis; the principal focus has been on reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The EU depends on nuclear power for more than one-quarter of its electricity, and a higher proportion of base-load power. Nuclear provides about 40% of the low-carbon electricity. Very different energy policies pertain across the continent and even within the EU.
Used nuclear fuel is responsibly managed to protect people and the environment, using well-established and proven industrial methods and technologies.
Powerful accelerators may be linked to conventional nuclear reactor technology in an accelerator-driven system (ADS) to transmute long-lived radioisotopes in used nuclear fuel into shorter-lived fission products.
The government is heavily involved through safety and environmental regulations, R&D funding, and setting national energy goals. The commitment to nuclear power as part of the USA's long-term energy strategy continues with the Trump administration.
Improved designs of nuclear power reactors are currently being developed in several countries. Newer advanced reactors now being built have simpler designs which reduce capital cost. They are more fuel efficient and are inherently safer.
Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for an expanded role of nuclear energy, including development of new reactor technology. Exports of nuclear goods and services are a major Russian policy and economic objective.
About 9% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy. Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactor. New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation reactors come to the end of their operating lives.
While cooling is clearly an essential factor in the siting of individual nuclear plants, this is readily manageable and constitutes no constraint on the future growth of nuclear power as a large-scale low-cost provider of clean energy.
Australia's Electricity (appendix to: Australia's Uranium, and nuclear power prospects). Australia is heavily dependent on coal for electricity, more so than any other developed country except Denmark and Greece. About 80% is derived from coal.
A list of terms commonly used in discussion of the nuclear energy industry.
In 1979 a cooling malfunction caused part of the core to melt at Three Mile Island 2. The reactor was destroyed. Some radioactive gas was released a couple of days after the accident, but not enough to cause any dose above background levels.
Potable water is in short supply in many parts of the world. Lack of it is set to become a constraint on development in some areas. Nuclear energy is already being used for desalination, and has the potential for much greater use.
Nuclear energy is a clean, sustainable energy source. It is essential for meeting the UN's sustainable development goals (SDGs).
No harmful health effects were found in 195,345 residents living in the vicinity of the plant who were screened by the end of May 2011. All the 1,080 children tested for thyroid gland exposure showed results within safe limits.
China has become self-sufficient in most aspects of the fuel cycle. The country aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically, obtain one-third through foreign equity in mines and joint ventures overseas, and to purchase one-third on the open market.
The USA's reactors provide about 18% of its electricity. These have a high level of performance.
Green technologies are being deployed with the aim of making modern societies more sustainable. It is therefore essential to consider the mineral resource and physical mining realities associated with the energy transition.
Nuclear power not only remains a competitive source of low-carbon generation, but also its environmental and energy security advantages are being increasingly recognized.
Australia's uranium has been mined since 1954, and three mines are currently operating. Australia's known uranium resources are the world's largest – 29% of the world total. It is the world's third-ranking producer, behind Kazakhstan and Canada.
To achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement will require the full decarbonization of electricity by 2050. In this event, panelists discussed how the full range of clean energy options can work together to achieve net-zero.
The Fuqing nuclear power plant units 5&6 are CNNC’s demonstration Hualong One units.
Australian Research Reactors, Australia has a new state of the art research reactor – OPAL, which commenced operation in 2006. Australia was one of the first countries to build a civil research reactor, in 1958. HIFAR produced most of Australia’s radioisotopes for medicine and industry from 1958 to 2007.
South Africa has two nuclear reactors generating 5% of its electricity. South Africa's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1984. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy has been strong, but financial constraints are severe.
About 15% of Canada's electricity comes from nuclear power. For many years Canada has been a leader in nuclear research and technology, as well as a high proportion of the world supply of radioisotopes used in medical diagnosis and cancer therapy.
Over one-third of the energy produced in most nuclear power plants comes from plutonium. It is created there as a by-product. Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for trace quantities it is not now found in the Earth's crust.
Most of the current fleet of reactors in the UK is due to retire by 2030. Construction has commenced on the first of a new generation of plants.
National and regional grid systems connecting generators with wholesale customers are just as important as electrical power generation. Investment in these is often on a similar scale to generation capacity.
The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the annual meeting of governments under the auspices of the United Nations. The goal of the UNFCCC, agreed by 197 countries in 1992, is to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at levels that would avoid dangerous anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change.