Thorium is more abundant in nature than uranium. It is fertile rather than fissile, and can be used in conjunction with fissile material as nuclear fuel. The use of thorium as a new primary energy source has been a tantalizing prospect for many years.
Powerful accelerators may be linked to conventional nuclear reactor technology in an accelerator-driven system (ADS) to transmute long-lived radioisotopes in used nuclear fuel into shorter-lived fission products.
A large amount of uranium is in rare earths deposits, and may be extracted as a by-product. Higher uranium prices and geopolitical developments would enhance the economic potential for recovering these.
India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme and has ambitious plans to expand nuclear capacity. The country has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.
Improved designs of nuclear power reactors are currently being developed in several countries. Newer advanced reactors now being built have simpler designs which reduce capital cost. They are more fuel efficient and are inherently safer.
Mineral Sands Appendix to NORM Information Paper ( March 2008 ) Australia and Africa are major producers of mineral sands containing titanium minerals and zircon. A by-product of this is monazite containing thorium, which is radioactive. Monazite is a minor constituent of many mineral sands deposits
Fuel fabrication is the final stage in nuclear fuel preparation prior to use in a reactor. Nuclear fuel assemblies are specifically designed for particular types of reactors and are made to exacting standards.
Molten salt reactor use molten fluoride salts as primary coolant, at low pressure. Much of the interest today in reviving the MSR concept relates to using thorium (to breed fissile uranium-233).
Radioactive materials which occur naturally and where human activities increase the exposure of people to ionising radiation are known by the acronym 'NORM'. NORM results from activities such as burning coal, making and using fertilisers, oil and gas production.
The current fleet of nuclear reactors runs primarily on uranium fuel enriched up to 5% uranium-235 (U-235). High-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU) is defined as uranium enriched to greater than 5% and less than 20% U-235. Applications for HALEU are today limited to research reactors and medical isotope production. However, HALEU will be needed for many advanced power reactor fuels, and more than half of the small modular reactor (SMR) designs in development.
Weapons-grade uranium and plutonium is being made available for use as civil fuel. Highly-enriched uranium from weapons stockpiles met about 13% of world reactor requirements through to 2013.
China has become self-sufficient in most aspects of the fuel cycle. The country aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically, obtain one-third through foreign equity in mines and joint ventures overseas, and to purchase one-third on the open market.
The basic fuel for a nuclear power reactor is uranium. Uranium occurs naturally in the Earth's crust and is mildly radioactive. Depleted uranium is a by-product from uranium enrichment.
World Nuclear Association is pleased to see that the Parliament of Victoria is considering the potential benefits to Victoria in removing prohibitions enacted by the Nuclear Activities (Prohibitions) Act 1983.
Uranium is a relatively common metal, found in rocks and seawater. Economic concentrations of it are not uncommon.
Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.
An international task force is developing six nuclear reactor technologies for deployment between 2020 and 2030. Four are fast neutron reactors. All six systems represent advances in sustainability, economics, safety, reliability and proliferation-resistance.
There is every reason to expect that the world supply of uranium, as of other metals, is sustainable, with adequate known resources being continuously replenished at least as fast as they are being used and at costs affordable to consumers.
Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel provides about 2% of the new nuclear fuel used today. MOX fuel is manufactured from plutonium recovered from used reactor fuel. MOX fuel also provides a means of burning weapons-grade plutonium (from military sources) to produce electricity.
While India and China are alike in having large aspirations to produce clean energy in the 21st century using nuclear power, the two countries occupy quite different positions in relation to the Non-Proliferation Treaty.
Indonesia's population of about 260 million is served by power generation capacity of only about 95 GWe. Indonesia has a greater depth of experience and infrastructure in nuclear technology than any other country in southeast Asia.
Nuclear reactors are, fundamentally, large kettles, which are used to heat water to produce enormous amounts of low-carbon electricity. They come in different sizes and shapes, and can be powered by a variety of different fuels.
The Earth's uranium has been thought to be produced in one or more supernovae over 6 billion years ago. More recent research suggests it could also be created through the merger of neutron stars.
Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer. Tens of millions of nuclear medicine procedures are performed each year, and demand for radioisotopes is increasing rapidly.
Nuclear reactors come in many different shapes and sizes. Most are large enough to power major cities, and small reactors are being developed to complement them. Many use water to cool their cores, whilst others use gas or metals.
Asia is the main region in the world where electricity generating capacity and specifically nuclear power is growing significantly. The greatest growth in nuclear generation is expected in China.
A list of terms commonly used in discussion of the nuclear energy industry.
Used nuclear fuel has long been reprocessed to extract fissile materials for recycling and to reduce the volume of high-level wastes. New reprocessing technologies are being developed to be deployed in conjunction with fast neutron reactors which will burn all long-lived actinides.
Natural sources account for most of the radiation we all receive each year. Up to a quarter originates mainly from medical procedures.
Kyrgyzstan has some uranium deposits and has supplied Russia in the past. A ban on uranium mining and exploration introduced in 2019 was lifted in 2024.
Uranium occurs in a number of different igneous, hydrothermal and sedimentary geological environments. The major primary ore mineral is uraninite or pitchblende, though a range of other uranium minerals exist.
A detailed list of the multitude of companies and organisations involved in China's nuclear energy scene.
The nuclear power industry has various arrangements for cooperation among utilities, and internationally, among government and United Nations nuclear agencies. The World Association of Nuclear Operators is a valuable means of international assistance.
Synroc is basically a ceramic made from several natural minerals which together incorporate into their crystal structures nearly all of the elements present in high level radioactive waste. Recent developments are of specialised forms to immobilise plutonium, and of composite glass-ceramic wasteforms.
Former Australian uranium mines. Australian uranium production from mines now closed
Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for future generations, but it also presents so far unresolved engineering challenges.
South Africa has two nuclear reactors generating 5% of its electricity. South Africa's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1984. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy has been strong, but financial constraints are severe.
Germany until March 2011 obtained one-quarter of its electricity from nuclear energy, using 17 reactors. Following the Fukushima accident in Japan in March 2011, eight reactors shut down immediately with the remaining reactors phased out by April 2023.
Australia's uranium has been mined since 1954, and three mines are currently operating. Australia's known uranium resources are the world's largest – 29% of the world total. It is the world's third-ranking producer, behind Kazakhstan and Canada.
In most respects the environmental aspects of a uranium mine are the same as those of other metalliferous mining. Most uranium mines in Australia and Canada have ISO 14001 certification. The uranium itself has a very low level of radioactivity, comparable with granite.
About 30 countries are actively considering, planning or starting nuclear power programmes.
Italy has had four operating nuclear power reactors but shut the last two down following the Chernobyl accident. About 5% of the electricity consumed in Italy is from nuclear power – all imported.
Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973.
A major increase in uranium mine production is planned. There is increasing international involvement in parts of Russia's fuel cycle. Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.
Nuclear waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other toxic industrial wastes. The amount of radioactive waste is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel electricity generation. Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically proven.
Most countries participate in international initiatives designed to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The international safeguards system has since 1970 successfully prevented the diversion of fissile materials into weapons.
About 9% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy. Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactor. New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation reactors come to the end of their operating lives.
Like nuclear power, renewable energy provides electricity without significant carbon dioxide emissions. However, solar and wind require back-up generating capacity due to their intermittent nature.
In 1979 a cooling malfunction caused part of the core to melt at Three Mile Island 2. The reactor was destroyed. Some radioactive gas was released a couple of days after the accident, but not enough to cause any dose above background levels.
Most low-level radioactive waste is typically sent to land-based disposal immediately following its packaging. Many long-term waste management options have been investigated worldwide which seek to provide publicly acceptable, safe, and environmentally sound solutions to the management of intermediate-level waste and high-level radioactive waste.
Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for an expanded role of nuclear energy, including development of new reactor technology. Exports of nuclear goods and services are a major Russian policy and economic objective.
About 15% of Canada's electricity comes from nuclear power. For many years Canada has been a leader in nuclear research and technology, as well as a high proportion of the world supply of radioisotopes used in medical diagnosis and cancer therapy.
This information paper describes in detail the causes of the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi in March 2011 and the actions taken since.
The government is heavily involved through safety and environmental regulations, R&D funding, and setting national energy goals. The commitment to nuclear power as part of the USA's long-term energy strategy continues with the Trump administration.
Australia's Uranium Deposits and Prospective Mines. Summary of Resources Available in Major Deposits and Prospective Mines