A nuclear power plant project is characterised by high upfront capital costs and long construction periods, low and stable operational costs, and lengthy payback periods. This investment profile, combined with the risks associated with construction, mean that the cost of financing is a key determinant of the cost of electricity generated.

The government is heavily involved through safety and environmental regulations, R&D funding, and setting national energy goals. The commitment to nuclear power as part of the USA's long-term energy strategy continues with the Trump administration.

A compendium of radioactive waste management policies in different countries, and how they are funded.

Bulgaria has two nuclear reactors generating about one-third of its electricity. Bulgaria's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong.

Decommissioning costs for nuclear power plants, including disposal of associated wastes, contribute only a small fraction of the total cost of electricity generation. Proven techniques and equipment are available to dismantle nuclear facilities.

Nuclear Power in the USA Appendix 2: Power Plant Purchases, Mergers and Management Rationalisation

Lithuania closed its last nuclear reactor, which had been generating 70% of its electricity, at the end of 2009. Electricity was a major export until the closure of Lithuania's nuclear plant.

The EU depends on nuclear power for more than one-quarter of its electricity, and a higher proportion of base-load power. Nuclear provides about 40% of the low-carbon electricity. Very different energy policies pertain across the continent and even within the EU.

Operators of nuclear power plants are liable for any damage caused by them, regardless of fault. They therefore normally take out insurance for third party liability, and in most countries they are required to do so. 

Tajikistan is mineral-rich and has some uranium deposits. It has substantial issues with legacy waste from past uranium mining and milling as a regional centre.

The USA is reviving its uranium mining, though almost all the uranium used in US commercial reactors is imported. A new centrifuge enrichment plant is now operating to replace very old and inefficient capacity. Implementation of national policy on high-level waste disposal remains blocked politically, but there are now two major proposals for long-term storage of it.

Switzerland has four operational nuclear reactors. Two large new units were planned. However, in June 2011 parliament resolved not to replace any reactors, and hence to phase out nuclear power by 2034.

Used nuclear fuel is responsibly managed to protect people and the environment, using well-established and proven industrial methods and technologies.

Germany until March 2011 obtained one-quarter of its electricity from nuclear energy, using 17 reactors. Following the Fukushima accident in Japan in March 2011, eight reactors shut down immediately with the remaining reactors phased out by April 2023.

Kyrgyzstan has some uranium deposits and has supplied Russia in the past. A ban on uranium mining and exploration introduced in 2019 was lifted in 2024.

Romania has two nuclear reactors generating about 20% of its electricity. Romania's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1996 and its second started up in May 2007.

Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for future generations, but it also presents so far unresolved engineering challenges.

On Agriculture Day, Henry Preston finds out how nuclear technology can help improve the sustainability and productivity of agriculture and therefore reduce carbon emissions.

Argentina has three operable nuclear reactors generating about 5% of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974.

There is strong interest in small and simpler units for generating electricity from nuclear power, and for process heat. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) represent a broad suite of designs that seek to apply the principles of modularity, factory fabrication, and serial production to nuclear energy.

Slovakia has five nuclear reactors generating half of its electricity and one more under construction. Slovakia's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1972.

Nuclear waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other toxic industrial wastes. The amount of radioactive waste is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel electricity generation. Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically proven.

This Position Statement presents the nuclear industry's perspective and policy on the important subject of decommissioning of civil nuclear industry sites.

British scientists were preeminent in the development of nuclear energy through to the early 1940s and a domestic nuclear industry grew to provide up to one third of electricity before starting to gradually retire. Now the country is working to build a new wave of power plants.

Ukraine is heavily dependent on nuclear energy – it has 15 reactors generating about half of its electricity.

Australia's Uranium Deposits and Prospective Mines. Summary of Resources Available in Major Deposits and Prospective Mines

Sealed radioactive sources are used in industrial radiography, gauging applications and mineral analysis. Gamma sterilization is used for medical supplies, some bulk commodities and food preservation.

While cooling is clearly an essential factor in the siting of individual nuclear plants, this is readily manageable and constitutes no constraint on the future growth of nuclear power as a large-scale low-cost provider of clean energy.

Spain generates about a fifth of its electricity from nuclear power. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1968. There are plans for renewed uranium mining. Government commitment to nuclear energy has been uncertain.

The Czech Republic has six nuclear reactors generating about one-third of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1985. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong.

There has been a wave of national initiatives in countries around the world to promote clean energy investment. National policies play a key role in influencing private sector investment decisions. This panel gave insights into recent policy decisions and their ramifications.

The nuclear power industry has various arrangements for cooperation among utilities, and internationally, among government and United Nations nuclear agencies. The World Association of Nuclear Operators is a valuable means of international assistance.

World Nuclear Fuel Cycle 2026

Namibia has significant uranium mines capable of providing 10% of world mining output. Its first commercial uranium mine began operating in 1976. There is strong government support for expanding uranium mining and some interest in using nuclear power.

Substantial amounts have been invested in energy R&D over the last 30 years, much directed at developing nuclear energy. Nowhere in the world is nuclear power subsidised per unit of production. In some countries however it is taxed because production costs are so low.

World Nuclear Association welcomes the decision of the World Bank’s board to support financing nuclear energy projects.

Most of the current fleet of reactors in the UK is due to retire by 2030. Construction has commenced on the first of a new generation of plants.

On 16 August half of Taiwan was affected by a blackout – some 6.6 million households and businesses – after an unplanned shutdown at a gas plant took the country’s fragile electricity system over the edge. Yet the government is standing by its policy of phasing out nuclear by 2025 and using existing reactors as little as possible.

Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for an expanded role of nuclear energy, including development of new reactor technology. Exports of nuclear goods and services are a major Russian policy and economic objective.

A major increase in uranium mine production is planned. There is increasing international involvement in parts of Russia's fuel cycle. Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.

Tech Company’s Membership Signals Nuclear Power's Central Role in Powering the AI Revolution

Nuclear Power in the USA Appendix 3   The US Department of Energy (DOE) has made provision for companies to apply for combined construction and operating licences (COLs) for new nuclear power plants, with costs being shared by DOE (see page on US Nuclear Policy). COL applications for 26 new nuclear reactors at 17 sites had been submitted to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) by mid-2009. The NRC expects applications for a further seven reactors by 2010.

This information paper describes in detail the causes of the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi in March 2011 and the actions taken since.

In most respects the environmental aspects of a uranium mine are the same as those of other metalliferous mining. Most uranium mines in Australia and Canada have ISO 14001 certification. The uranium itself has a very low level of radioactivity, comparable with granite.

To mark International Women’s Day (IWD), World Nuclear Association has signed an agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) by which the Association will help the IAEA to find suitable industry internship opportunities for women undertaking the Marie Sklodowska Curie and Lise Meitner fellowship programmes.

Photo Credit: Dean Calma / IAEA

The Netherlands has one nuclear reactor generating a small amount of its electricity. A previous decision to phase out nuclear power has been reversed. Public and political support is increasing for expanding nuclear energy.

China has become self-sufficient in most aspects of the fuel cycle. The country aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically, obtain one-third through foreign equity in mines and joint ventures overseas, and to purchase one-third on the open market.

Poland plans to have nuclear power from about 2036 as part of a diverse energy portfolio, moving it away from heavy dependence on coal.

The IAEA DG said that "nothing that happens here will be unnoticed, because the IAEA will be here to support you" during a visit to the South Ukraine NPP

How Holtec are working to restart Palisades nuclear power plant.

France derives about 70% of its electricity from nuclear energy. This is due to a long-standing policy based on energy security. France is the world's largest net exporter of electricity due to its very low cost of nuclear generation.

Net Zero Nuclear initiative launched today at World Nuclear Symposium in London ahead of COP 28 in Dubai, UAE, calls for the tripling of nuclear capacity to accelerate the transition to low-carbon energy systems.

Radioisotope power sources have been an important source of energy in space since 1961. Fission power sources have been used mainly by Russia, but new and more powerful designs are under development in the USA.

There are three operating uranium mines in Australia: Ranger in Northern Territory, Olympic Dam in South Australia, and Beverley with Four Mile in South Australia. Four Mile has final processing through the Beverley plant.

There have been several proposal for regional and international repositories for disposal of high-level nuclear wastes and several projects are being investigated.

Former Australian uranium mines.  Australian uranium production from mines now closed

Climate change is a worldwide problem and policy responses have accordingly had an international basis; the principal focus has been on reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Nuclear power is cost competitive with other forms of electricity generation, except where there is direct access to low-cost fossil fuels. In assessing the economics of nuclear power, decommissioning and waste disposal costs are fully taken into account.

The global nuclear industry will gather in Warsaw on 20–21 May for our WNSC 2025 Conference. This Q&A guide covers the key information you need to know ahead of the event.

Climate change is a worldwide problem and policy responses have accordingly had an international basis; the principal focus has been on reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Following the 1986 Chernobyl accident, safety concerns over early Soviet reactor designs intensified. As a condition of accession to the European Union, eight Soviet-designed reactors were closed. Sixteen nuclear power reactors of early Soviet design are still operating: one in Armenia and the rest in Russia

Trade in nuclear fuel materials and services takes place between producers and consumers spread across a range of countries worldwide. To carry out such trade efficiently often requires that quantities of nuclear materials are exchanged, or ‘swapped’. 

World Nuclear Association has today published a new White Paper calling upon policymakers and regulators to adopt a science-based, all-hazards risk assessment and management system that holistically evaluates the contributions of different energy sources and sets a level playing field.

Kazakhstan has 14% of the world's uranium resources. It is the world's leading uranium producer. The government is committed to increased uranium exports, and is considering future options for nuclear power.

The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel. Two Chernobyl plant workers died on the night of the accident, and a further 28 people died within a few weeks as a result of acute radiation poisoning.

The Earth's uranium has been thought to be produced in one or more supernovae over 6 billion years ago. More recent research suggests it could also be created through the merger of neutron stars.

South Korea is among the world's most prominent nuclear energy countries, and exports its technology widely. Today 26 reactors provide about one-third of South Korea's electricity from 26 GWe of plant.

Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.

A single 485 MWe PWR operates at Borssele.

Finland has five operating nuclear reactors. Provisions for radioactive waste disposal are well-advanced.

A detailed list of the multitude of companies and organisations involved in China's nuclear energy scene.

Sharm El-Sheikh marked the first time the global nuclear community had a large pavilion in the Blue Zone, at the heart of COP27

The USA and Russia have investigated and trialled the use of nuclear explosions for civil engineering purposes, though only one significant construction resulted: a dam in Kazakhstan. Some 150 experiments spanned 1957-75 in the USA and 1965-89 in the USSR.

National and regional grid systems connecting generators with wholesale customers are just as important as electrical power generation. Investment in these is often on a similar scale to generation capacity.

South Africa has two nuclear reactors generating 5% of its electricity. South Africa's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1984. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy has been strong, but financial constraints are severe.

The International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), developed from the former Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), is a partnership of countries aiming to ensure that new nuclear in initiatives meet the highest standards of safety, security and non‐proliferation.

Taiwan shut down its last operating nuclear reactor in May 2025. It was constructing two advanced reactors, but this project was cancelled. Imports account for over 95% of the energy, and are vital to the rapidly industrializing economy.

There are a number of pervasive myths regarding both radiation and radioactive wastes. Some lead to regulation and actions which are counterproductive to human health and safety.

Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973.

Slovenia has shared a nuclear power reactor with Croatia at Krško since 1981.

Hungary has four nuclear reactors generating about half of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1982. Government support for nuclear energy is strong.

Nuclear energy is an excellent source of process heat for various industrial applications including desalination, synthetic and unconventional oil production, oil refining, biomass-based ethanol production, and in the future: hydrogen production.

Australia's uranium has been mined since 1954, and three mines are currently operating. Australia's known uranium resources are the world's largest – 29% of the world total. It is the world's third-ranking producer, behind Kazakhstan and Canada.

Policy and regulatory steps are increasingly being taken to enhance the role of the financial system in the transition towards low-carbon and sustainable economies. The ongoing evolution of environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria presents both opportunities and risks to the nuclear industry.

The continent of Africa has considerable mineral deposits, including uranium. Exploration and mine development is proceeding in countries which have not hitherto supplied uranium.

Pakistan has six operating reactors. Because Pakistan is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons programme, it is largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or materials, which hinders its development of civil nuclear energy.

Armenia has relied heavily on nuclear power since 1976. It has one reactor in operation and the government plans to build another.

US Uranium Mining and Exploration. Uranium mining in the USA today is undertaken by few companies on a relatively small scale. Uranium exploration is undertaken by many companies, often going over areas that were mined in the 1950-80s.