Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973.
Electricity demand is growing. The key question is how electricity should be produced now and in the years to come. Nuclear is currently the world's second largest source of low-carbon power, is quickly scalable, and provides numerous benefits to people and the planet.
This information paper describes in detail the causes of the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi in March 2011 and the actions taken since.
No harmful health effects were found in 195,345 residents living in the vicinity of the plant who were screened by the end of May 2011. All the 1,080 children tested for thyroid gland exposure showed results within safe limits.
The Fukushima Daiichi reactors are GE boiling water reactors (BWR) of an early (1960s) design supplied by GE, Toshiba and Hitachi, with what is known as a Mark I containment.
There have only been two major accidents at nuclear power plants, and their impacts have been far less severe than widely feared. Nuclear is the safest energy source we use anywhere in the world.
Nuclear power plants are designed to withstand earthquakes, and in the event of major earth movement, to shut down safely.
In 2018, the ICRP launched a pre-consultation, inviting its Special Liaison Organisations (SLOs), including World Nuclear Association, to comment on the draft update of ICRP Publications 109 and 111, developed by the ICRP Task Group nº 93. We have taken note of the changes between the different drafts, and we welcome this opportunity to provide further comments on the draft report “Radiological Protection of the People and the Environment in the Event of a Large Nuclear Accident”.
From the outset, there has been a strong awareness of the potential hazard of both nuclear criticality and release of radioactive materials. Both engineering and operation are designed accordingly.
Earthquakes and Seismic Protection for Japanese Nuclear Power Plants: Nuclear facilities are designed so that earthquakes and other external events will not jeopardise the safety of the plant. In France for instance, nuclear plants are designed to withstand an earthquake twice as strong as the 1000-year event calculated for each site. It is estimated that, worldwide, 20% of nuclear reactors are operating in areas of significant seismic activity. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has a Safety Guide on Seismic Risks for Nuclear Power Plants. Various systems are used in planning, including Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment (PSHA), which is recommended by IAEA and widely accepted.
Japan needs to import some 90% of its energy requirements. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973. Following the 2011 Fukushima accident this policy was reviewed and reaffirmed.
Natural sources account for most of the radiation we all receive each year. Up to a quarter originates mainly from medical procedures.
Radiation occurs naturally and comes from sources all around us, including our own bodies. Radiation is often misunderstood, but helps save lives and cure disease
Operators of nuclear power plants are liable for any damage caused by them, regardless of fault. They therefore normally take out insurance for third party liability, and in most countries they are required to do so.
Ten of the country’s 33 operable reactors have restarted as of June 2023.
Taiwan shut down its last operating nuclear reactor in May 2025. It was constructing two advanced reactors, but this project was cancelled. Imports account for over 95% of the energy, and are vital to the rapidly industrializing economy.
Germany until March 2011 obtained one-quarter of its electricity from nuclear energy, using 17 reactors. Following the Fukushima accident in Japan in March 2011, eight reactors shut down immediately with the remaining reactors phased out by April 2023.
On 30 September 1999 three workers received high doses of radiation in a Japanese plant preparing fuel for an experimental reactor. Two of the doses proved fatal. The accident was caused by bringing together too much uranium enriched to a relatively high level, causing a 'criticality'.
Decommissioning costs for nuclear power plants, including disposal of associated wastes, contribute only a small fraction of the total cost of electricity generation. Proven techniques and equipment are available to dismantle nuclear facilities.
Switzerland has four reactors that generate around a third of the country’s electricity.
Acknowledgements, definitions and assumptions.
Japan is proceeding with its plan to seek regulatory approval to restart many of its reactors.
"Today Japan has reminded the world that it is committed to creating a better future" - said Agneta Rising, Director General of the World Nuclear Association in response to the restart of the Sendai unit 1 nuclear reactor.
On Sunday the 27th of November, the Swiss public voted in favour of letting the country’s fleet of nuclear power reactors operate for longer than 45 years, based on regulatory approval.
Acknowledgements, definitions and assumptions.
Two atomic bombs made from uranium-235 and plutonium-239 were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively early in August 1945. The atmospheric testing of some 545 nuclear weapons continued up to 1963.
Switzerland has four operational nuclear reactors. Two large new units were planned. However, in June 2011 parliament resolved not to replace any reactors, and hence to phase out nuclear power by 2034.
China has become largely self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. The strong impetus for nuclear power in China is increasingly due to air pollution from coal-fired plants.
The Fuqing nuclear power plant units 5&6 are CNNC’s demonstration Hualong One units.
About 9% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy. Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactor. New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation reactors come to the end of their operating lives.
The nuclear power industry has various arrangements for cooperation among utilities, and internationally, among government and United Nations nuclear agencies. The World Association of Nuclear Operators is a valuable means of international assistance.
Uranium is a relatively common metal, found in rocks and seawater. Economic concentrations of it are not uncommon.
Asia is the main region in the world where electricity generating capacity and specifically nuclear power is growing significantly. The greatest growth in nuclear generation is expected in China.
Like coal and gas-fired plants, nuclear power plants use cooling to condense the steam used to drive the turbines that generate the electricity. Once-through, recirculating or dry cooling may be used. Most nuclear plants also use water to transfer heat from the reactor core.
In the last 60 years uranium has become one of the world's most important energy minerals. It is used almost entirely for making electricity, though a small proportion is used for the important task of producing medical isotopes.
The energy projections produced by the International Energy Agency (IEA) are frequently consulted by policymakers, the media, and analysts. This information page discusses the nuclear power sector projections of the main IEA scenarios alongside those produced by other organizations.
Unit 1 of Belarus's first nuclear power plant was connected to the grid in November 2020. A second VVER-1200 unit was connected to the grid in May 2023.
Russia's invasion of Ukraine has impacted the country's nuclear power facilities. This page provides a summary of the latest developments.
Reprocessing of Japanese used fuel has been undertaken in UK and France under contract with Japanese utilities. Recovered fissile materials are returned to Japan as reactor fuel, notably as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel.
An overview of key global results, with high resolution images.
Radioactive materials which occur naturally and where human activities increase the exposure of people to ionising radiation are known by the acronym 'NORM'. NORM results from activities such as burning coal, making and using fertilisers, oil and gas production.
Neutrons in motion are the starting point for everything that happens in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron passes near to a heavy nucleus, for example uranium-235, the neutron may be captured by the nucleus and this may or may not be followed by fission.
The UAE has commenced a nuclear power programme. It accepted a bid from a South Korean consortium to build four commercial nuclear power reactors at Barakah, the first of which was connected to the grid in August 2020.
Nuclear Power in the USA Appendix 3 The US Department of Energy (DOE) has made provision for companies to apply for combined construction and operating licences (COLs) for new nuclear power plants, with costs being shared by DOE (see page on US Nuclear Policy). COL applications for 26 new nuclear reactors at 17 sites had been submitted to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) by mid-2009. The NRC expects applications for a further seven reactors by 2010.
The USA's reactors provide about 18% of its electricity. These have a high level of performance.
South Korea is among the world's most prominent nuclear energy countries, and exports its technology widely. Today 26 reactors provide about one-third of South Korea's electricity from 26 GWe of plant.
Turkey has had plans for establishing nuclear power generation since 1970. The country's first nuclear power plant, at Akkuyu, commenced construction in April 2018.
The world will need significantly increased energy supply in the next 30 years, especially cleanly-generated electricity. Electricity demand is increasing much more rapidly than overall energy use.
Most of the current fleet of reactors in the UK is due to retire by 2030. Construction has commenced on the first of a new generation of plants.
Most of the commercial nuclear power reactors in the world today require uranium 'enriched' in the U-235 isotope for their fuel. The commercial process employed for this enrichment involves gaseous uranium hexafluoride in centrifuges.
France derives about 70% of its electricity from nuclear energy. This is due to a long-standing policy based on energy security. France is the world's largest net exporter of electricity due to its very low cost of nuclear generation.
About 30 countries are actively considering, planning or starting nuclear power programmes.
Finland has five operating nuclear reactors. Provisions for radioactive waste disposal are well-advanced.
Germany's Energiewende (energy transition) is a national program to change to a renewable-dominated energy system and phase out nuclear power. The government has estimated that the total cost of this could reach €1 trillion.
The EU depends on nuclear power for more than one-quarter of its electricity, and a higher proportion of base-load power. Nuclear provides about 40% of the low-carbon electricity. Very different energy policies pertain across the continent and even within the EU.
Over 160 ships are powered by more than 200 small nuclear reactors. Most are submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers. In future, constraints on fossil fuel use in transport may bring marine nuclear propulsion into more widespread use.
Ukraine is heavily dependent on nuclear energy – it has 15 reactors generating about half of its electricity.
Fuel fabrication is the final stage in nuclear fuel preparation prior to use in a reactor. Nuclear fuel assemblies are specifically designed for particular types of reactors and are made to exacting standards.
India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme and has ambitious plans to expand nuclear capacity. The country has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.
Improved designs of nuclear power reactors are currently being developed in several countries. Newer advanced reactors now being built have simpler designs which reduce capital cost. They are more fuel efficient and are inherently safer.
A critical issue for accelerating nuclear power plant construction is the availability of heavy engineering plants to make the reactor components, especially for those units of more than 1100 MWe. There has been considerable new investment in major forges and manufacturing plants.
A major increase in uranium mine production is planned. There is increasing international involvement in parts of Russia's fuel cycle. Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.
Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.
Russia is moving steadily forward with plans for an expanded role of nuclear energy, including development of new reactor technology. Exports of nuclear goods and services are a major Russian policy and economic objective.