Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for future generations, but it also presents so far unresolved engineering challenges.
The USA and Russia have investigated and trialled the use of nuclear explosions for civil engineering purposes, though only one significant construction resulted: a dam in Kazakhstan. Some 150 experiments spanned 1957-75 in the USA and 1965-89 in the USSR.
Brexit is a matter of the utmost importance to both the UK nuclear sector (as represented by the UK NIA) and the broader European nuclear sector (as represented by FORATOM), but it will also likely require action from global partners.
Neutrons in motion are the starting point for everything that happens in a nuclear reactor. When a neutron passes near to a heavy nucleus, for example uranium-235, the neutron may be captured by the nucleus and this may or may not be followed by fission.
Two atomic bombs made from uranium-235 and plutonium-239 were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively early in August 1945. The atmospheric testing of some 545 nuclear weapons continued up to 1963.
Tech Company’s Membership Signals Nuclear Power's Central Role in Powering the AI Revolution
Nuclear reactors come in many different shapes and sizes. Most are large enough to power major cities, and small reactors are being developed to complement them. Many use water to cool their cores, whilst others use gas or metals.
The nuclear power industry has various arrangements for cooperation among utilities, and internationally, among government and United Nations nuclear agencies. The World Association of Nuclear Operators is a valuable means of international assistance.
The science of atomic radiation, atomic change and nuclear fission was developed from 1895 to 1945. From 1945 attention was given to harnessing this energy in a controlled fashion for naval propulsion and for making electricity.
Lithium-7 has two important uses in nuclear power due to its relative transparency to neutrons. As hydroxide it is necessary in small quantities for safe operation in PWR cooling systems as a pH stabilizer, and as a fluoride it is also expected to come into much greater demand for molten salt reactors.
Radioisotope power sources have been an important source of energy in space since 1961. Fission power sources have been used mainly by Russia, but new and more powerful designs are under development in the USA.
Many of the world's nuclear reactors are used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. There are about 220 such reactors operating, in 53 countries.
The EU depends on nuclear power for more than one-quarter of its electricity, and a higher proportion of base-load power. Nuclear provides about 40% of the low-carbon electricity. Very different energy policies pertain across the continent and even within the EU.
Italy had four operating nuclear power reactors but shut the last two down following the Chernobyl accident. About 5% of the electricity consumed in Italy is from nuclear power – all imported.
The RBMK is an unusual reactor design, one of two to emerge in the Soviet Union. The design had several shortcomings, and was the design involved in the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Major modifications have been made to the RMBK reactors still operating.
The International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), developed from the former Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), is a partnership of countries aiming to ensure that new nuclear in initiatives meet the highest standards of safety, security and non‐proliferation.
A detailed list of the multitude of companies and organisations involved in China's nuclear energy scene.
World Nuclear Association is strongly in favour of the European Commission’s ambition to increase the GHG emissions reductions targets for 2030 and that any such emission reductions are done in a responsible and sustainable fashion.
China has become self-sufficient in most aspects of the fuel cycle. The country aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically, obtain one-third through foreign equity in mines and joint ventures overseas, and to purchase one-third on the open market.
British scientists were preeminent in the development of nuclear energy through to the early 1940s and a domestic nuclear industry grew to provide up to one third of electricity before starting to gradually retire. Now the country is working to build a new wave of power plants.
Denmark gets over half of its electricity from wind. The country is part of two major electrical grids which depend on nuclear and hydro for much of the base-load supply.
Most of the current fleet of reactors in the UK is due to retire by 2030. Construction has commenced on the first of a new generation of plants.
Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.
Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer. Tens of millions of nuclear medicine procedures are performed each year, and demand for radioisotopes is increasing rapidly.
Public opinion is an important consideration for governments and policy-makers. This page provides information about polling of public opinion on nuclear energy.
The Earth's uranium has been thought to be produced in one or more supernovae over 6 billion years ago. More recent research suggests it could also be created through the merger of neutron stars.
South Korea is among the world's most prominent nuclear energy countries, and exports its technology widely. Today 26 reactors provide about one-third of South Korea's electricity from 26 GWe of plant.
About 9% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy. Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactor. New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation reactors come to the end of their operating lives.
Thorium is more abundant in nature than uranium. It is fertile rather than fissile, and can be used in conjunction with fissile material as nuclear fuel. The use of thorium as a new primary energy source has been a tantalizing prospect for many years.
Whereas carbon dioxide emissions associated with nuclear power generation are negligible, emissions from fossil fuel power plants are considerable – resulting in environmental and health consequences.
The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel. Two Chernobyl plant workers died on the night of the accident, and a further 28 people died within a few weeks as a result of acute radiation poisoning.
From the outset, there has been a strong awareness of the potential hazard of both nuclear criticality and release of radioactive materials. Both engineering and operation are designed accordingly.
There have been several proposal for regional and international repositories for disposal of high-level nuclear wastes and several projects are being investigated.
There is strong interest in small and simpler units for generating electricity from nuclear power, and for process heat. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) represent a broad suite of designs that seek to apply the principles of modularity, factory fabrication, and serial production to nuclear energy.
The Netherlands has one nuclear reactor generating a small amount of its electricity. A previous decision to phase out nuclear power has been reversed. Public and political support is increasing for expanding nuclear energy.
An international task force is developing six nuclear reactor technologies for deployment between 2020 and 2030. Four are fast neutron reactors. All six systems represent advances in sustainability, economics, safety, reliability and proliferation-resistance.
A major increase in uranium mine production is planned. There is increasing international involvement in parts of Russia's fuel cycle. Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.
Slovakia has five nuclear reactors generating half of its electricity and one more under construction. Slovakia's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1972.
Powerful accelerators may be linked to conventional nuclear reactor technology in an accelerator-driven system (ADS) to transmute long-lived radioisotopes in used nuclear fuel into shorter-lived fission products.
A list of terms commonly used in discussion of the nuclear energy industry.
Used nuclear fuel has long been reprocessed to extract fissile materials for recycling and to reduce the volume of high-level wastes. New reprocessing technologies are being developed to be deployed in conjunction with fast neutron reactors which will burn all long-lived actinides.
About 30 countries are actively considering, planning or starting nuclear power programmes.
Molten salt reactor use molten fluoride salts as primary coolant, at low pressure. Much of the interest today in reviving the MSR concept relates to using thorium (to breed fissile uranium-233).
The World Nuclear Association responded to questions posed by the European Commission on the form that an energy union might take. (October 2015)
Nuclear reactors are, fundamentally, large kettles, which are used to heat water to produce enormous amounts of low-carbon electricity. They come in different sizes and shapes, and can be powered by a variety of different fuels.
Uranium is a relatively common metal, found in rocks and seawater. Economic concentrations of it are not uncommon.
The European Union College of Commissioners finally adopted a Complementary Delegated Act that recognizes the important contribution nuclear energy can make towards decarbonization.
The European Parliament has urged European Union (EU) leaders to extend the sanctions introduced as a result of the war with Ukraine to include nuclear energy.
The basic fuel for a nuclear power reactor is uranium. Uranium occurs naturally in the Earth's crust and is mildly radioactive. Depleted uranium is a by-product from uranium enrichment.
China has become largely self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle. The strong impetus for nuclear power in China is increasingly due to air pollution from coal-fired plants.
The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of industrial processes which involve the production of electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. Uranium is a relatively common element that is found throughout the world.
The Fuqing nuclear power plant units 5&6 are CNNC’s demonstration Hualong One units.
Over one-third of the energy produced in most nuclear power plants comes from plutonium. It is created there as a by-product. Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for trace quantities it is not now found in the Earth's crust.
On 30 September 1999 three workers received high doses of radiation in a Japanese plant preparing fuel for an experimental reactor. Two of the doses proved fatal. The accident was caused by bringing together too much uranium enriched to a relatively high level, causing a 'criticality'.
Response by the World Nuclear Assocaition to the consultation on the World Bank’s Environmental and Social Framework. (February 2015)
Radioactive materials which occur naturally and where human activities increase the exposure of people to ionising radiation are known by the acronym 'NORM'. NORM results from activities such as burning coal, making and using fertilisers, oil and gas production.
Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel provides about 2% of the new nuclear fuel used today. MOX fuel is manufactured from plutonium recovered from used reactor fuel. MOX fuel also provides a means of burning weapons-grade plutonium (from military sources) to produce electricity.
Australian Research Reactors, Australia has a new state of the art research reactor – OPAL, which commenced operation in 2006. Australia was one of the first countries to build a civil research reactor, in 1958. HIFAR produced most of Australia’s radioisotopes for medicine and industry from 1958 to 2007.
Used nuclear fuel is responsibly managed to protect people and the environment, using well-established and proven industrial methods and technologies.
This information paper describes in detail the causes of the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi in March 2011 and the actions taken since.
Join World Nuclear Association at COP 30: Events at our Net Zero Nuclear Pavilion and Beyond
India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme and has ambitious plans to expand nuclear capacity. The country has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.
Four VVER-440 reactors operate at the Paks nuclear power plant in Hungary.
Following the 1986 Chernobyl accident, safety concerns over early Soviet reactor designs intensified. As a condition of accession to the European Union, eight Soviet-designed reactors were closed. Sixteen nuclear power reactors of early Soviet design are still operating: one in Armenia and the rest in Russia
Romania has two nuclear reactors generating about 20% of its electricity. Romania's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1996 and its second started up in May 2007.
Nuclear waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other toxic industrial wastes. The amount of radioactive waste is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel electricity generation. Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically proven.
Nuclear reactors produce a small amount of waste that is managed responsibly. There are several management strategies in practise, such as direct disposal and reuse in reactors to generate more electricity.
There are a number of pervasive myths regarding both radiation and radioactive wastes. Some lead to regulation and actions which are counterproductive to human health and safety.
Substantial amounts have been invested in energy R&D over the last 30 years, much directed at developing nuclear energy. Nowhere in the world is nuclear power subsidised per unit of production. In some countries however it is taxed because production costs are so low.
A joint statement in support of the crucial role that nuclear energy needs to play in reshaping our energy paradigm and policies going forward.
A joint statement in support of the crucial role that nuclear energy needs to play in reshaping our energy paradigm and policies going forward.
The World Nuclear Association responded to the consultation exercise initiated by the European Commission in connection with its competition investigation into the construction of the Paks II nuclear power plant. (February 2016)
The energy projections produced by the International Energy Agency (IEA) are frequently consulted by policymakers, the media, and analysts. This information page discusses the nuclear power sector projections of the main IEA scenarios alongside those produced by other organizations.
Fuel fabrication is the final stage in nuclear fuel preparation prior to use in a reactor. Nuclear fuel assemblies are specifically designed for particular types of reactors and are made to exacting standards.
Weapons-grade uranium and plutonium is being made available for use as civil fuel. Highly-enriched uranium from weapons stockpiles met about 13% of world reactor requirements through to 2013.
World Nuclear Association welcomes the decision of the European Council not to exclude nuclear projects from being eligible for sustainable finance grants.
Canada was the world's largest uranium producer for many years, accounting for about 22% of world output, but in 2009 was overtaken by Kazakhstan. Canada will have a significant role in meeting future world demand for uranium.
A historic Ministerial Declaration signed today at the COP28 UN climate change conference in Dubai by more than twenty countries sets a clear goal of tripling global nuclear energy capacity by 2050.
A new Partnership Agreement has been signed today between World Nuclear Association and Women in Nuclear Global at a virtual ceremony.
Mainland China has 58 operable reactors with a total capacity of 57 GWe.
Director General, Dr Sama Bilbao y León participated in World Utilities Congress 2025, held in Abu Dhabi from 27–29 May.
Nuclear power imported from Ukraine could avoid consumption of 5-6 billion cubic metres of gas in the EU this winter
The International Energy Agency’s World Energy Outlook (WEO) projects more than a doubling of nuclear generation by 2050 in its Net Zero Emissions by 2050 (NZE) scenario.
In order to fully unlock the potential of the atom, it is crucial that the gap between perceived and actual risks is addressed.
Today most people are aware of the important contribution nuclear energy makes in providing about 10% of the world's low-carbon electricity. The widespread and important applications of nuclear technology outside of civil electricity production in power plants are, however, less well known.
A surge in new nuclear plants coming online is helping reduce emissions and meet electricity demand, but much more is needed to achieve a sustainable energy mix, said Agneta Rising, speaking on the opening day of Atomexpo 2018.
Life-cycle analysis is useful for comparing net energy yields from different methods of electricity generation. Nuclear power shows up very well as a net provider of energy. External costs, evaluated as part of life-cycle assessment, strongly favour nuclear over coal-fired generation.
World Nuclear Association is proud to announce the inaugural World Nuclear Supply Chain Conference, set to take place at the Crowne Plaza Warsaw – The Hub, Poland, May 20-21, 2025.
The importance of nuclear energy for the transition towards a clean and affordable energy system is being highlighted at the 24th World Energy Congress, taking place this week in Abu Dhabi.
No harmful health effects were found in 195,345 residents living in the vicinity of the plant who were screened by the end of May 2011. All the 1,080 children tested for thyroid gland exposure showed results within safe limits.
During the course of a safety system test being carried out just before a routine maintenance outage, Chernobyl 4 was destroyed as a result of a power transient on 26 April 1986.
The health effects of the Chernobyl accident have been the subject of extensive study by health professionals and unprecedented speculation and exaggeration by parts of the media. This Appendix summarises two authoritative and expert assessments of the situation, and provides links to two others.